Mandala (political model)

Mandala (Sanskrit: मण्डल, romanized: maṇḍala, lit. 'circle') is a term used to describe decentralized political systems in medieval Southeast Asia, where authority radiated from a core center rather than being defined by fixed territorial boundaries. This model emphasizes the fluid distribution of power among networks of Mueang and Kedatuan, contrasting with modern concepts of centralized nation-states.

The mandala framework was adopted by 20th-century historians to analyze traditional Southeast Asian political structures—such as federations of kingdoms or tributary states—without imposing preconceived notions of statehood. Unlike the Chinese and European model of a territorially defined state with rigid borders and centralized bureaucracies, Southeast Asian polities (with the exception of Vietnam) organized power through overlapping spheres of influence. A polity's sovereignty derived from its ability to attract allegiance through cultural, economic, or military prestige, rather than through administrative control of land. These dynamic systems could incorporate multiple subordinate centers while maintaining a symbolic "center of domination," often embodied by a ruler's court or sacred site.

Within this system, tributary relationships bound peripheral rulers to a central suzerain, creating hierarchical but flexible alliances. While superficially analogous to European feudalism, mandalas lacked formalized feudal contracts or hereditary land tenure, instead relying on ritualized exchanges of tribute and prestige goods to maintain loyalty.