The clash between the Church and the Empire

From the time of Constantine I's conversion to Christianity in the 4th century, the question of the relationship between temporal and spiritual power was constant, causing a clash between the Church and the Empire. The decline of imperial power initially allowed the pope to assert greater independence. However, beginning in 962, the Holy Roman Emperor assumed control over papal elections and the appointment of bishops, reinforcing imperial authority over the Church.

In response to this, the Gregorian Reform commenced in the mid-11th century. By 1059, Pope Nicholas II had transferred the election of the pope to the college of cardinals. In 1075, Gregory VII proclaimed the dictatus papae, asserting papal supremacy and removing bishops from imperial appointment. This initiated a period of conflict known as the Investiture Dispute, highlighted by Henry IV's excommunication and his subsequent penance at Canossa. At the end of this conflict, the Pope succeeded in freeing himself from imperial guardianship. In 1122, under the Concordat of Worms, the Emperor agreed to the free election of bishops, reserving the right to give prelates temporal investiture. This compromise marked the defeat of the Empire.

The issue of Church and state relations reemerged during the reigns of Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II, escalating into more intense confrontations. Despite significant weakening of the Holy Roman Empire during this time, the Papacy faced challenges in its attempts to establish a global theocracy. The conflict with the Holy Roman Empire would be succeeded by a new one with the Kingdom of France which forced the Pope to resettle to Avignon and later escalated in the Western Schism and Italian Wars.