Water supply and sanitation in Egypt

The water supply and sanitation in Egypt is shaped by both significant achievements and persistent challenges. The country is heavily reliant on the Nile River, which provides 90% of its total water resources, amounting to 55 billion cubic meters annually, a figure unchanged since 1954. However, national water demand exceeds 90 billion cubic meters, creating a chronic water deficit. As a result, per capita water availability declined to 570 cubic meters in 2018, well below the 1,000 cubic meter water scarcity threshold. In response, Egypt has prioritized water conservation and wastewater treatment infrastructure to optimize limited resources while addressing rising consumption from population growth and agricultural expansion.

Between 1990 and 2010, Egypt significantly expanded access to piped water, increasing urban coverage from 89% to 100% and rural coverage from 39% to 93%, while also eliminating open defecation in rural areas. By 2019, 96.9% of the population had access to safely managed drinking water, while proper sanitation coverage rose from 50% in 2015 to 66.2% in 2019, and the share of treated wastewater reached 74% by 2022.

Institutional reforms have shaped Egypt’s water and sanitation sector, with the Holding Company for Water and Wastewater (HCWW) created in 2004 and the Egyptian Water Regulatory Agency (EWRA) established in 2006 to oversee service provision and regulatory enforcement. While 98% of Egyptians now have access to at least basic water sources, challenges persist. Only half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers, and low cost recovery due to some of the world’s lowest water tariffs requires substantial government subsidies. These financial constraints, exacerbated by post-2011 salary increases without corresponding tariff adjustments, have hindered infrastructure expansion. Additionally, poor operation of facilities, limited government accountability, and low transparency further strain the sector.

Foreign assistance remains crucial, with the United States, European Union, France, Germany, the World Bank, and other international donors providing both financing and technical expertise. While sector reforms have aimed at improving cost recovery and service efficiency, private sector involvement has remained limited, primarily confined to Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) projects for treatment plants.